Vocational Education in Republican China
Vocational Education in Republican China
Barbara Schulte (Humboldt University of Berlin/Centre for East and South-East Studies, Lund)
This project was funded by the German Research Agency between 2004 and 2008, within a Research Cluster (SFB 640) on the 'Representations of Social Order'. More information on the first phase of the project (2004–2008) can be found here. Information on the second phase (2008–2012) is available here.
Some parts of this project presentation – the
maps, the database – are still in German since the original project
language was German. If you have questions or suggestions, please send
an e-mail to barbara.schulte
ace.lu.se.
I would like to thank Jürgen Schriewer, who supervised the project; Verónica Oelsner, who works on the Argentinian counterpart of the project and provided invaluable advice; Jingfei Liang, who helped me enter many of the information into the database; Oliver Oost, who produced the GIS based maps; Esther Fuhrmann, who brought the database online; Thomas Schupp, who gave me advice on the graphic representation of networks; and finally Juliane Lang, who put these findings online. I am also grateful to the yWorks company for providing the yEd Graph Editor with which the networks were visualised.
The findings from the project can be found in much greater detail in Barbara Schulte, 'Zur Rettung des Landes': Bildung und Beruf im China der Republikzeit ['Saving the Nation': Education and Profession in Republican China]. Frankfurt/Main: Campus, 2008. An English version is in preparation to be published with Routledge.
The Chinese Association of Vocational Education
Underlying assumptions of the project
The database CAVE (Chinese Actors in Vocational Education)
Social networks through educational careers
Social networks through institutions
Social networks through print media
Social networks through memberships
Discursive tropes: how is vocational education conceptualised?
The Chinese Vocational School 中華職業學校 in Shanghai
Documents from the Shanghai Municipal Archives
Biographical Materials & Encyclopaedias
Introduction
The project analyses how Chinese elites between 1912, the founding year of the Republic, and 1927, the end of the warlord period, framed and negotiated concepts around 'profession', 'education', and 'vocational education'. Since the second half of the 19th century, Chinese elites have been widely propagating the exploitation of 'talent' and 'human resources' for the sake of modernisation, and they designed educational programmes to support this agenda. However, until now, a major part of the Chinese population found it difficult to link the concepts of 'profession' and 'work', on the one hand, with the idea of 'education' on the other. The project illustrates how the originally Western idea of vocational education was imported into the Chinese context, and how Chinese elites appropriated the idea by linking it with other both 'traditional' and 'modern' concepts. The reference horizon of these elites was twofold: first, they drew on 'indigenous', albeit (re‑)constructed resources and traditions; second, they turned towards the international environment which they both admired and feared: Japan and the 'West'.
This internet presentation will present some of the main findings regarding the geographical and social mobility of these elites, their discourse, and one of the vocational schools that they founded in Shanghai.
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The Chinese Association of Vocational Education
The project concentrates on the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education (Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe 中華職業教育社), which was founded in 1917 by Huang Yanpei 黃炎培 (1878–1965) and forty-seven fellow modernisers (see the document on founding members). This heterogeneous group of Confucian-educated scholars, modern scientists with international experience, entrepreneurs, manufacturers, craftspeople, journalists, politicians, and political advisors was particularly active (and partly successful) in promoting and researching vocational education, through their engagement in the media, in politics, in professional associations and guilds, and in schools.
The Association grew quickly in number: in the founding year of 1917, already 786 persons were registered as members – a number that doubled in the following year, and grew to reach almost ten times as many members in 1929. Thus, the Association could claim to be one of the biggest and most influential educational associations of the time.
Membership in the Chinese Association of Vocational Education between 1917 and 1928
|
1917 |
1918 |
1919 |
1920 |
1921 |
1922 |
1923 |
1924 |
1925 |
1926 |
1927 |
1928 |
1929 |
|
|
normal individual member |
545 |
1071 |
2527 |
2602 |
3975 |
4685 |
5211 |
5134 |
5637 |
6039 |
6186 |
6351 |
6903 |
|
normal corporative member |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
35 |
48 |
57 |
73 |
76 |
79 |
117 |
|
special individual member |
204 |
271 |
340 |
347 |
546 |
608 |
661 |
727 |
732 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
special corporative member |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
31 |
40 |
43 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
|
eternal individual member |
37 |
87 |
133 |
136 |
246 |
268 |
274 |
276 |
276 |
291 |
297 |
305 |
313 |
|
eternal corporative member |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
12 |
13 |
23 |
23 |
23 |
25 |
|
Total |
786 |
1429 |
3000 |
3085 |
4767 |
5561 |
6220 |
6237 |
6758 |
6426 |
6582 |
6758 |
7358 |
The motto and emblem of the Association emphasised the interconnectedness of the intellectual and the working world. This was symbolised by two interlocking circles that were to represent the reconciliation of theoretical and practical experience, learned and applied knowledge, mental and manual work etc.
In the years following its birth, the Association was quick in connecting with other associations and institutions, and was very active both in promoting vocational education and in setting up educational institutions. One model example was the Chinese Vocational School 中華職業學校, which was founded in Shanghai in 1918.
The members came from all parts of China, although a large part of the members was concentrated in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, and Shanghai, where the Association had its headquarters.
Distribution of members (1929) (map: Oliver Oost)
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Underlying assumptions of the project
The project is based on the assumption that the representations that these modernisers had about 'profession(s)' were conceptually transformed through a complex interplay of Chinese and non-Chinese resources. In particular, it is assumed that the conceptual transformation of these representations was closely related to
- traditional concepts of profession, work, and education – whether by re-affirming these concepts or by (partly) discarding them; and
- Chinese experiences of the modernisation and globalisation processes, which went hand in hand with the reception of international ideas (theories, programmes, models etc.).
The two assumptions are tightly linked to each other: to many Chinese actors, the Western modernisation project embodied both resurrection and humiliation at the same time, since the essence of Chinese culture was profoundly questioned by these processes. However, even the cultural elites of the country, while adhering to a vague ideal of Chinese culture, to a large extent ignored or even despised the existing traditions of the Chinese workforce (such as those of the guilds). Against this background, the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education represent a highly complex and particularly illustrative sample since they comprised not only Western and Confucian educated intellectuals but also representatives from the traditional professional world.
A final assumption is that this conceptual transformation of 'profession(s)' generated an ambivalent relationship between ideal and reality, that is, between what was discussed as the ideal educational programme to tackle 'vocational education', and what was actually implemented and achieved. This is investigated in a case study of the ChineseVocational School in Shanghai, which was founded in 1918 by the members of the Association.
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The database CAVE (Chinese Actors in Vocational Education)
The database CAVE (Chinese Actors in Vocational Education, or Chinese Association of Vocational Education) collects information on 195 members of the Association, among them all 48 founding members. These 195 members constitute the most prominent members of the Association – either because they helped founding it or because their articles were published – or their names were mentioned – in the documents of the Association. (Some of them, particularly the entrepreneurs, may not have published anything, but were important donors. Only through these donors were some of the larger projects of the Association feasible at all.)
The database contains the following information: basic information, such as date and place of birth and death etc.; the pseudonyms that are often numerous and that make it so hard to identify a given person; their educational and professional careers, thus providing insight into the social background of the members; their membership in other associations; their travel destinations; their relationships with other persons that were mentioned in the consulted materials; their publications (not complete; with a focus on the two journals Educational Journal 教育雜誌 and Education and Vocation 教育與職業); and their participation in journals and newspapers.
A substantial part of the entered information on a member – such as region, association, type of profession or education etc. – is linked to the other members. That means that clicking on 'Japan' or a certain association where somebody holds a membership will show all the other persons who went to Japan or who were members of this particular association. This can provide glimpses into the social structure of this association, which is further illustrated in the following section Mobility of actors.
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Mobility of actors
Geographic mobility
Looking at the places where the members worked or travelled over time, one finds a surprising intranational and international mobility. Already a quick glance at the birth and death places among the members (places of death being restricted to Asia here) shows how their geographical range of action diversified in the course of their lives. Most of the members who did migrate ended up in Beijing, Taiwan, or North America (9 members identified; not included in the map). This migration pattern correlates with the political ideology of the respective member: whereas those close to the Guomindang 國民黨 were exiled to Taiwan, those who followed Huang Yanpei 黃炎培 in his rapprochement towards the Communists often took over posts in Beijing (mostly in educational or cultural politics). Those members who spent their sunset years in North America either worked for international organisations or they can be identified as representing the 'Third Force' (which more or less dissolved between the Communist and the Guomindang frontlines), such as the famous Zhang Jiasen張嘉森 (alias Zhang Junmai or Carsun Chang; 1887–1969).
Considering the fact that the Chinese Association of Vocational Education was located first in Jiangsu and then in Shanghai, its members reveal a broad geographical range within China as regards their education. While a majority had received at least their tertiary education in the coastal regions or Beijing, thirty-two members decided to engage themselves in the hinterland during their professional career. Thus, these elites' geographical range of action within China – including the establishment of new educational institutions throughout the country – clearly broadened.
The members' international mobility is even more astounding. In these times of slow transport and scarce resources, a minimum of seventy-seven persons (out of a total of 195) studied abroad, mainly in the US and in Japan.
Education of members abroad
|
Region |
Education |
|
North America |
|
|
USA |
83 |
|
Asia |
|
|
Japan |
38 |
|
Hong Kong |
4 |
|
Europe |
|
|
Germany |
7 |
|
England |
5 |
|
France |
5 |
|
Total |
142 |
Also with regard to the members' professional careers, 108 non-Chinese destinations could be identified where one or several of the members worked at one point in their lives.
Regions outside China where members worked
|
Region |
professionally active members |
|
North America |
|
|
USA |
23 |
|
Asia |
|
|
Taiwan |
20 |
|
Singapore |
13 |
|
Hong Kong |
9 |
|
Japan |
5 |
|
Indonesia |
2 |
|
Philippines |
1 |
|
Korea |
1 |
|
Malaysia |
1 |
|
Afghanistan |
1 |
|
Europe |
2 |
|
Germany |
2 |
|
England |
2 |
|
France |
2 |
|
Belgium |
1 |
|
Switzerland |
1 |
|
Netherlands |
1 |
|
other |
|
|
Australia |
2 |
|
Caribbean |
2 |
|
Mexico |
2 |
|
Peru |
1 |
|
New Zealand |
1 |
|
South Africa |
1 |
|
"abroad" (not specified) |
12 |
|
Total |
108 |
More than half of the members travelled abroad, and all continents were visited by at least one of the actors (although Africa was clearly underrepresented); many of the examined actors became later active in international organisations.
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Social mobility
Professional profile
How socially mobile were the members as a group? With regard to their professional profile, a huge majority held jobs in either politics or the educational sector. However, a third of the members did pursue a profession in industry, commerce, or handicraft at one point in their life. This clearly shows that the Association was not just a group of intellectuals.
Professional profile of the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education
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Social networks through educational careers
The members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education were highly integrated into Chinese society by being connected to other institutions, associations, and by working in the modern print media.
Already their educational careers give a hint of the emerging network, since the Association was joined by clusters of alumni from certain educational institutions. Columbia University, with 27 alumni joining the Association, scores highest, followed by those of St. John's College and the Nanyang Gongxue 南洋公學, both located in Shanghai.
Educational institutions where members had studied prior to their membership and the linkages between these institutions through plural educational careers (only those institutions are shown which were shared by a minimum of 4 members)
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Social networks through institutions
In their professional careers, the Association's members were integrated into a close-knit network of educational and commercial institutions. Again, there were clusters of members who worked at the same institution. For example, thirteen members worked at Jinan University 暨南大學, which was located first in Nanjing, then in Shanghai. Additionally, members could create connections between different institutions if they moved from one to the other by way of professional mobility. (The number of connections is indicated by the colour of the boxes in the graph.) Sometimes, it was only one member who switched from one institution to the other. Often, however, more than one member performed the identical career move (this is indicated by the thickness of the connection lines). For example, seven members of the Association worked both at Guanghua University 光華大學 and Daxia University 大夏大學 (both in Shanghai) during their careers, thus creating a strong connection between these two institutions.
Academic institutions were more firmly integrated into the network than the non-academic ones. However, also the Commercial Press 商務印書館, the Jiaotong Bank 交通銀行, the Bank of China 中國銀行, and the Chinese Publishing House 中華書局 were substantial parts of the network.
Network of institutions through the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education
|
|
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 |
Jinan University 暨南大學 Guanghua University 光華大學 Daxia University 大夏大學 South-Eastern University 東南大學 Central University 中央大學 China College 中國公學 Commercial Press 商務印書館 Higher Teachers College, Nanjing 南京高等師範學校 Fudan University 復旦大學 Beijing University 北京大學 Beijing Normal University 北京師範大學 Nanyang Gongxue 南洋公學 Qinghua University 清華大學 Xiamen University 廈門大學 Bank of China 中國銀行 Jiaotong Bank 交通銀行 Chinese Publishing House 中華書局 Jiangsu Ziyiju 江蘇咨議局 Hujiang University 滬江大學 Huadong University 華東大學 Longmen Academy 龍門師範學堂 Tongji University 同濟大學 Nankai University 南開大學 Pudong School 浦東學校 Chamber of Commerce 縂商會
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
|||||
15 to 17
connections
9 to 14
connections
3 to 8
connections
1
to 2 connections
5 to 7 members
3 to 4 members
1 to 2 members
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Social networks through print media
The member's of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education were also very active as either full-time or occasional journalists. By working for newspapers, magazines, and journals, they could both propagate their ideas to an increasingly literate public and connect with other journalists and transmitters of ideas.
The core of the media network is the trio of the Educational Journal 教育雜誌, Education and Vocation 教育與職業, and New Education 新教育. 51 members published at least once in the Educational Journal, 36 members in the Association's journal Education and Vocation, and sixteen in the journal New Education (which by some was called a 'Deweyan journal' because of the close links of its editors with John Dewey).
Network of print media through the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education
|
|
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 |
Educational Journal 教育雜誌 Education and Profession 教育與職業 Xin Jiaoyu 新教育 Shenbao 申報 Shishi Xinbao 時事新報 Shenghuo Zhoukan 生活周刊 Xin Zhonghua 新中華 Dalubao 大陸報 Dongfang Zazhi 東方雜誌 Xianzheng Yuekan 憲政月刊 Zhonghua Jiaoyujie 中華教育界 Minzhubao 民主報 Dazhong Shenghuo 大衆生活 Quanmin Kangzhan 全民抗戰 Kangzhan 抗戰 Shiwubao 時務報 Xuanhuan Ribao 循環日報 Xinmin Congbao 新民叢報 Wanguo Gongbao 萬國公報 Jiaoyu Shijie 教育世界 Minguo Ribao 民囯日報 Shangbao 商報 Chubao 楚報 Xin Qingnian 新青年 Shaonian Zhongguo 少年中國
|
||||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
||||
|
|
|
|
||||||
15 to 18 connections
9 to 14
connections
3 to 8
connections
1 to 2
connections
not connected
16 to 22 members
6 to 15 members
1 to 5 members
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Social networks through memberships
Another way for the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education to connect with other groups and make their work more widely known was to be a member of yet another association. The members made extensive use of this strategy. They often joined other societies or organisations in groups of three or more people, which suggests that they could add some weight to their position there.
As the graph shows, the network through memberships is particularly dense. The strongest connections were between the Association itself and the Chinese Educational Association 中國教育會. The members were also engaged in associations other than educational. Fifteen members held a membership in the Tongmenghui 同盟會, the umbrella organisation for all kinds of revolutionary organisations. Also humanitarian associations such as the Red Cross Society 紅十字會 and commercial organisations such as the Commercial Association of Shanghai County 上海縣商會 were well integrated into the network.
Network of membership through the members of the Chinese Association of Vocational Education
|
|
|
20 to 27 connections |
||
|
|
11 to 19 connections |
|||
|
|
4 to 10 connections |
|||
|
|
1 to 3 connections
|
|||
|
|
34 members (maximum) |
|||
|
|
8 to 12 members |
|||
|
|
3 to 7 members |
|||
|
|
1 to 2 members |
|||
|
1 |
Chinese Association of Vocational Education |
ZhonghuaZhiye Jiaoyushe 中華職業教育社 |
||
|
2 |
Chinese Educational Association |
ZhongguoJiaoyuhui 中國教育會 |
||
|
3 |
Tongmenghui |
Tonmenghui 同盟會 |
||
|
4 |
Chinese Association of Reforming and Promoting Education |
ZhonghuaJiaoyu Gaijinshe 中華教育改進社 |
||
|
5 |
Chinese Democratic Association for National Construction |
ZhongguoMinzhu Jianguohui 中國民主建國會 |
||
|
6 |
The China Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Culture |
ZhonghuaJiaoyu Wenhua Jijin Dongshihui 中華教育文化基金董事會 |
||
|
7 |
Chinese Literature and Art Society |
ZhonghuaXueyishe 中華學藝社 |
||
|
8 |
Jiangsu Association for Educational Matters/Jiangsu Educational Association |
JiangsuXuewu Zonghui/Jiangsusheng Jiaoyuhui 江蘇學務總會/江蘇省教育會 |
||
|
9 |
Chinese Science Society |
ZhongguoKexueshe 中國科學社 |
||
|
10 |
Association for Research on the Constitution |
XianzhengYanjiuhui 憲政研究會 |
||
|
11 |
China Democratic League |
ZhongguoMinzhu Tongmeng 中國民主同盟 |
||
|
12 |
Chinese Association for Social Education |
ZhongguoShehui Jiaoyuhui 中國社會教育會 |
||
|
13 |
Southern Society |
Nanshe 南社 |
||
|
14 |
Aspiration Society |
ShangzhiXuehui 尚志學會 |
||
|
15 |
Christian Council of China |
ZhonghuaQuanguo Jidujiao Xiejinhui 中華全國基督教協進會 |
||
|
16 |
Three Peoples' Principles Youth Corps |
Sanminzhuyi Qingniantuan 三民主義青年團 |
||
|
17 |
Constitutional Preparation Association Shanghai |
Shanghai Yubei Lixian Gonghui 上海預備立憲公會 |
||
|
18 |
Association for the Construction of New China |
XinZhongguo Jianshe Xuehui 新中國建設學會 |
||
|
19 |
National Salvation Association |
Jiuguohui 救國會 |
||
|
20 |
Red Cross Society |
HongShizihui 紅十字會 |
||
|
21 |
Association for the Promotion of Education for the Ordinary People |
ZhonghuaPingmin Jiaoyu Cujinhui 中華平民教育促進會 |
||
|
22 |
Chinese Communist Party |
ZhongguoGongchandang 中國共産黨 |
||
|
23 |
Association of Chinese Students in America |
ZhongguoLiu Mei Xuesheng Lianhehui 中國留美學生聯合會 |
||
|
24 |
Association for Child Education |
ErtongJiaoyushe 兒童教育社 |
||
|
25 |
Chinese Association of Psychological Testing |
CeyanXuehui 測驗學會 |
||
|
26 |
Chinese Association of Agricultural Science |
ZhongguoNongxuehui 中國農學會 |
||
|
27 |
Commercial Association of Shanghai County |
Shanghai Xian Shanghui 上海縣商會 |
||
|
28 |
Republican Party |
Gonghedang 共和黨 |
||
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Discursive tropes: how was vocational education conceptualised?
How did these actors articulate their ideas around 'profession' and 'education'? Two journals were chosen to investigate these questions: the Journal of Education (Jiaoyu Zazhi 教育雜質), one of the most important educational journals of the time, and the journal Education and Vocation (Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 教育與職業), the journal published by the Chinese Association of Vocational Education.
The discourse analysis shows that the actors, even if they were organised within one association, did not speak with one voice. 'Vocational education' was not considered just an instrument that would bring more or better qualifications to the people. Rather, the ideas of the actors around 'profession' and 'vocational education' and the functions ascribed to them express their – sometimes normative and ideological – conceptions of individual, society, and nation. These conceptions had a profound impact on the further development of Chinese education and on the Chinese modernisation process. While a few viewed the profession as the expression of a 'vocation' that would bring order into an individual's life, most actors reduced this view to the socialising function of professions (and of the traditional training within the guilds). They stressed the 'joy' (le 樂) to serve society by pursuing a particular profession. The traditional concept of 'self-cultivation' (xiushen 修身) was thus reactivated in two different ways: while a minority saw the way of self-cultivation as being embedded into the idiosyncratic character of a profession, the majority viewed 'profession' as a kind of 'work' that could be used as an instrument of socialisation.
Not only traditional resources were used differently, as foreign countries also provided resources that would help actors to think about 'profession' and 'education'. Above all, the United States was used to emphasise the disciplinary, socialising character of vocational education. For example, sport activities and psychological tests 'imported' from the US were seen as powerful tools to morally integrate the individual into society. At the same time, however, the US was an example of an annihilation of social division through integration of vocational education into the general curriculum. Germany, on the other hand, served both to the propagators and to the critics of social segregation as the example of a vertically tiered educational system where vocational and general education represented different social status.
Moreover, the actors noticed the high value that was attached to the different professions and their training modes within the German context. Germany seemed to quintessentially prove that in a modern nation state it was also possible to educate the population outside the school; traditional modes of professional training had apparently been translated effectively into a modern educational system.
However, most actors could not conceive of vocational education without the school playing the central role. Probably due to the discursive dominance of the representatives from politics, education, and the media, the school – the place to impart knowledge – could not be dropped as a symbol of (vocational) education. Even those representatives from handicraft and trade who had been trained along traditional lines favoured the school (and not the work place) as the proper site of vocational education for two reasons: first, these representatives were, even more than their co-members in academia, keen to get rid of traditional training practices which they regarded as obstacles to modernisation; second, their prototype of vocational education was 'expert training', which was designed to ensure excellence in engineering and technology and excluded traditional training patterns.
In comparison, their co-members who were active in education, culture, and politics emphasised how vocational education could contribute to discipline of the masses and bring about social peace since all would find their proper place with the proper allocation of training and jobs. Increasingly, vocational education was also legitimated as a useful tool to mobilise the masses and thus save the nation. Still others used vocational education to argue for more democracy since vocational education would enable the disadvantaged to embark on new careers and enhance their life opportunities.
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The Chinese Vocational School 中華職業學校 in Shanghai
The case of the Chinese Vocational School further illustrates this heterogeneous array of representations around profession and education. The school defined itself through its usefulness to society – both in helping the children (and their families) by offering them an education and in promoting change through these children's later careers.
While some characteristics in the school organisation clearly reflected calls for more democracy and individual participation (such as the students' parliament), others displayed a focus on patriotic issues and disciplinary measures (such as the school hymn or military training).
Furthermore, within a few years, the school underwent a significant transformation. While in the beginning its curriculum was oriented towards handicraft professions, some years later there was a clear shift towards mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and business administration. The Chinese Vocational School could not evade the general uneasiness with the liaison of 'work' and 'education' and the concomitant trend of vocational schools evolving into technical colleges.
Nonetheless, the school was largely seen as a success. The calligraphies, which prominent members of the Association designed for the fifteenth anniversary of the school, emphasise how the school had succeeded in bridging the manual with the intellectual working world and in teaching useful, applicable knowledge. Even more, some viewed the school as having brought happiness upon its students. (See the calligraphies by Mu Ouchu穆藕初 (1876-1943), Shi Jiaxiu史家修 (1879-1934), Qian Yongming錢永銘(1885-1958), Shen Enfu沈恩孚 (1864-1944), Zhang Jia'ao張家璈 (1889-1979), and Cai Yuanpei蔡元培 (1868-1940).)
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Source Materials
Documents from the Shanghai Municipal Archives
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Q 235-1-21. 1936. Jiaoyubu Fenfa Da Zhong Xiaoxue "Tezhong" Jiaoyu Gangyao ji Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Minzu Fuxing Jiaoyu Shishi Fangan] (April 15, 1936). |
|
Q 235-2-1888, 1889, 1890. 1929. Shanghai Shi Jiaoyuju Guanyu Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Beian. 3 files. |
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Q 235-3-483. 1929. Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Guizhang Lubian (March 1929). |
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Q 235-3-484. 1929. Minguo Shiba Nian zhi Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe. |
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Q 235-3-486. 1933. Zhonghua Zhiye Xuexiao Shiwu Zhounian Jinian (May 1933). |
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Q 235-3-613. 1934. Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Jieshao Weiyuan Shi. |
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U 38-2-298. 1926-1940. Shanghai Fazujie Gongdongju Jingwuchu Guanyu Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Zhuzhi Qingkuang. |
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Y 4-1-592. 1947. Zhongguo Zhiye Jiaoyu Sanshi Nian Lai Dashibiao. Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Sanshi Zhounian Xuanyan, Jianshi. Authors among others: Huang Yanpei, Sun Yunren & Mai Boxiang. |
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Y 8-1-8-32. 1934. Shanghai Ge Tushuguan Gailan: Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Tushuguan (May 1934). |
Biographical Materials & Encyclopaedias
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"Benqi zuozhe jiandan jieshao." 1947. In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 32, 4-6 (3 parts). Pp. 67; pp. 12; pp. 29. |
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"Benqi zuozhe jieshao." 1947. In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 32, 2-3 (2 parts). Pp. 107-108; pp. 84. |
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Bibliographical Dictionary of Republican China. 1967-1979. Ed. by Howard L. Boorman & Richard C. Howard. 5 volumes. New York: Columbia University Press. |
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Jinxiandai Mingren Xiaozhuan. 2003. 2 Bände. Beijing: Beijing Tushuguan Chubanshe. (The volumes are based on two biographical encyclopaedias compiled and edited by Wo Qiu Zhongzi (alias Fei Xingjian) in 1919 and 1922.) |
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Lidai Mingren Shiming Biehao Cidian. 2002. Ed. by Chi Xiuyun. Taiyuan: Shanxi Guji Chubanshe. |
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Minguo Renwu Da Cidian. 1991. Ed. by Xu Youchun et al. Shijiazhuang: Hebei Renmin Chubanshe. |
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Minguo Renwu Xiaozhuan. 1988. Ed. by Liu Shaotang. 8 vol. Taibei: Chuanji Wenxue Chubanshe. |
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Minguo Renwuzhuan. 2002. Ed. by Xiong Shanghou & Yan Ruping. 11 vol. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. |
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"Women de teyue xuanshu." 1934. In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 24, 1-4 (4 parts). Pp. 193-196; pp. 129-132; pp. 121-124; pp. 123-127. |
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Xinhai Yilai Renwu Nianlilu. 1993. Ed. by Shao Yanmiao. Nanjing: Jiangsu Jiaoyu Chubanshe. |
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Zhongguo Jinxiandai Renming Da Cidian. 1989. Ed. by Li Shengping. Beijing: Zhongguo Guoji Guangbo Chubanshe. |
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Zhongguo Jinxiandai Renwu Minghao Da Cidian. 2005. Ed. by Chen Yutang. Hangzhou: Zhejiang Guji Chubanshe. |
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Zhongguo Lidai Renming Da Cidian. 1999. Ed. by Zhang Huizhi, Shen Qiwei & Liu Dezhong. Shanghai: Shanghai Guji Chubanshe. |
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Zhongguo Wenhuajie Renwu Zongjian. 1940. Beijing: Zhonghua Faling Bianyinguan. |
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"Zuozhe jieshao." 1947. In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 32, 1. Pp. 106-107. |
Texts and Documents by Actors
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Cai Yuanpei. 1912. "Xin jiaoyu yijian." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 3, 11. Pp. 18-27. |
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1921. "Putong jiaoyu he zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 13, 1. Pp. 1-7. |
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Chang Carsun. 1952. The Third Force in China. New York: Bookman. |
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Chen Chi. 1997 [1897]. "Shangwu." In: Chen Chi, Chen Chi Ji, Yongshu. Edited by Zhao Shugui & Zeng Liya. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. Pp. 83-84. |
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Fan Yuanlian. 1962 [1914]. "Shuo xin jiaoyu zhi bi." In: Shu Xincheng (ed.), Zhongguo Jindai Jiaoyushi Ziliao. Vol. 3. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Pp. 1058-1064. Originally published in Zhonghua Jiaoyujie 17 (May 1914). |
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Gu Shusen. 1917. De Fa Ri Mei Si Guo Zhiye Jiaoyu. Shanghai: Zhonghua Shuju. |
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1918. "Shougong jiaoshou gexin zhi yanjiu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 10, 1. Pp. 52-62. |
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Guo Bingwen. 1915. "De Fa jiaoyuan zhi zhuangkuang." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 7, 3. Pp. 19-28. |
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Guo Tanxian. 1925. "Wo guo nongye jiaoyu de gaijin." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 17, 1. Pp. 1-10. |
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Hu Shi. 1928. "Zhiye de xuanze." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 97. Pp. 489-495. |
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1963. The Development of the Logical Method in Ancient China. With an introduction by Hyman Kublin. 2nd edition. New York: Paragon Book Reprint. Co. |
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1989. Hu Shi Koushu Zichuan. Translated by Tang Degang. Beijing: Huawen Chubanshe. |
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Huang Boqiao. 1933. "Jinianwen. Yu suo xiwang yu Zhonghua Zhiye Xuexiao zhe." In: Q 235-3-486. Pp. 1-2 [consecutive numbering: 15]. |
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Huang Yanpei. 1909. "Lixiang de jiating." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 1, 2. Pp. 10-11. |
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1913. "Xuexiao jiaoyu caiyong shiyongzhuyi zhi shangque." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 5, 7. Pp. 55-82. |
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1914. Huang Yanpei Kaocha Jiaoyu Riji. Shanghai: Shanghai Commercial Press. |
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1915. "Shiyongzhuyi chanchu zhi di yi nian." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 7, 1. Pp. 14-18. |
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1916a. "Dong Xi liang dalu jiaoyu bu tong zhi genben tan." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 8, 1. Pp. 4-8. |
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1916b. "Bao Yi riji ." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 8, 10. Pp. 73-84. (Bao Yi was a Pseudonym of Huang Yanpei.) |
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1917. "Zhiye jiaoyu shishi zhi xiwang." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 9, 1 (1917). Pp. 1-9. |
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1921a. "Bianyan." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 25. Pp. 1. |
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1921b. "Zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 13, 11. Pp. 61-63. |
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1922a. "Du zhiye jiaoyu zuijin tongji. In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 37. Pp. 1-3. |
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1922b. "Minguo shinian zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 32. Pp. 1-4. |
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1923. "Zhiye jiaoyu zhi jiao." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 41. Pp. 1-3. |
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1924. "Minguo shi'er nian zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 52. Pp. 63-66. |
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1926. "Tichu da zhiye jiaoyu zhuyi zhengqiu tongzhi yijian." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 71. Pp. 1-4. |
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1929. "Xuyan." In: Q 235-3-484. Pp. 1-5. The text comes without an author. However, the writing style reminds of Huang Yuanpei's style. |
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1931. "Sanshiwu nian lai Zhongguo zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Zhang Yuanji (ed.), Sanshiwu Nian Lai zhi Zhongguo Jiaoyu. Shanghai: Commercial Press. Pp. 133-152. |
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1933. "Zhiye jiaoyu gai zenmeyang ban?" In: Q 235-3-486. Pp. 1-14 [consecutive numbering: 1-6]. |
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1945. Yan'an Guilai. Chongqing: Guoxun Shudian. |
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1989 [1915]. "Report of an Investigation of American Education." In: Arkush, R. David & Leo O. Lee (eds), Land Without Ghosts. Chinese Impressions of America from the Mid-Nineteenth Century to the Present. Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 99-105. |
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Jia Fengzhen. 1913. "Lixiang de xuexiao." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 5, 8. Pp. 59-65. |
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1914. "Jiaoyu weiyan." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 5, 12. Pp. 156-161. |
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1916. "Wu guo jiaoyu sixiang bu zhen zhi yuanyin." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 8, 3. Pp. 44-50. |
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Jia Guanren. 1933. "Jia xu." In: Q 235-3-486. Pp. 1-2 [consecutive numbering: 9]. |
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Jiang Hengyuan. 1928. "Rensheng xiye zeye ji fuwu shi suo ying ju de biyao tiaojian." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 98. Pp. 535-543. (Under the pseudonym Jiang Wenyu.) |
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1933. "Jiang xu." In: Q 235-3-486. Pp. 1-4 [consecutive numbering: 7-8]. |
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Jiang Menglin. 1918a. "Gaodeng xueshu wei jiaoyu zhi jichu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 10, 1. Pp. 13-18. |
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1918b. "Shijie dazhan hou wu guo jiaoyu zhi zhuzhongdian." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 10, 10. Pp. 127-136. |
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Jiang Qi. 1920. "Zidongzhuyi de genben sixiang." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 12, 1. Pp. 1-4. |
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Jiang Weiqiao. 1917a. "Feilübin zhi nongye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 9, 5. Pp. 1-6. |
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1917b. "Feilübin zhi gongye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 9, 7. Pp. 15-24. |
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1917c. "Feilübin zhi shangye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 9, 10. Pp. 33-36. |
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1917d. "Zhiye jiaoyu jinxing zhi shangque." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 9, 11. Pp. 197-199. |
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Jin Bangzun. 1928. "Tichang guohuo yu gongye buxi jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 99. Pp. 647-649. (Under the pseodonym Jin Daoyi.) |
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Li Hongzhang. 1963 [1864]. "Jiangsu xunfu Li Hongzhang yuanhan." In: Chouban Yiwu Shimo: Tongzhichao. Vol. 5, section 25. Taibei: Guofeng Chubanshe. Pp. 621-625 (originally Pp. 4-12). |
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Liang Qichao. 1962 [1917]. "Zhongguo jiaoyu zhi qiantu yu jiaoyujia zhi zijue." In: Shu Xincheng (ed.), Zhongguo Jindai Jiaoyushi Ziliao. Vol. 3. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Pp. 954-961. (Originally published in the journal Jiaoyu Gongbao 4, 2 (January 1917). |
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1989 [1936]. "Wushi nian Zhongguo jinhua gailun." In: Liang Qichao, Yinbing Shi Heji, vol. 5, 2nd article collection. Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju. Pp. 39-48. (Originally published in February 1923.) |
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Liu Zhan'en. 1925. "Zhiye zhidao de juti jihua." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 17, 1. Pp. 1-20. |
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Lu Guiliang. 1916. "Deguo jiaoyu zhi tezhi." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 8, 2 & 3. Pp. 15-21; 23-28. |
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Ma Jianzhong. 1994 [summer 1877]. "Shang Li Boxiang yan chu Yang gongke shu." In: Cai Xixue Yi: Feng Guifen Ma Jianzhong Ji. Commented by Zheng Dahua. Shenyang: Liaoning Renmin Chubanshe. Pp. 155-160. (Li Boxiang is a pseudonym of Li Hongzhang.) |
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Mu Ouchu. 1928. "Kexue jiaoyu yu guohuo qiantu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 99. Pp. 603-605. (Under the pseudonym Mu Xiangyue.) |
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Pan Gongzhan. 1928. "Tichang guohuo yu renmin shengji." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 99. Pp. 607-609. |
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Pan Wenan. 1923. "Zhiye xuexiao xuesheng ying bei zhi xingxing zhineng." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 46. Pp. 1-4. |
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1925. "Zhiye jiaoyu yu zhiye xunlian." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 17, 1. Pp. 1-5. |
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1933. "Yiwang fuwu zhi zhuixiang." In: Q 235-3-486. Pp. 2-5 [consecutive numbering: 15-17]. |
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Qin Hancai. 1923. "Ruishi zhiye jiaoyu gaikuang." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 44. Pp. 9-14. |
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1925. "Minguo shisan nian zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 62. Pp. 107-116. |
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1926. "Minguo shisi nian zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 71. Pp. 25-29. |
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Shen Enfu. 1909. "Jiangsu Jiaoyu Zonghui fushe danji jiaoshou lianxisuo biye zengyan." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 1, 13. Pp. 85-87. |
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Shen Suwen. 1923. "Yu yinhangjia taolun shangye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 41. Pp. 5-10. |
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Shu Xincheng. 1925. "Zhongxue zhiye zhidao de xianjue wenti." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 17, 1. Pp. 1-6. |
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1928. Jindai Zhongguo Jiaoyu Sixiangshi. Shanghai: Shanghai Zhonghua Shuju. |
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1962. Zhongguo Jindai Jiaoyushi Ziliao. 3 volumes. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. |
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Sun Qimeng. 1951. "Duiyu 'Women de Fangxiang' de linghui." In: Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe (ed.), Women de Fangxiang. Special issue. Pp. 5-10. |
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Sun Zuji. 1927. "Shi nian lai Zhongguo zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 85. Pp. 199-205. |
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Tang Hualong. 1962 [1914]. "Shang da zongtong yan jiaoyu shu." In: Shu Xincheng (ed.), Zhongguo Jindai Jiaoyushi Ziliao. Vol. 3. Beijing: Renmin Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Pp. 1070-1071. |
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Tao Xingzhi. 1991 [1931]. "Mo qing kan tudi." In: Tao Xingzhi Quanji. Vol. 2. Chengdu: Sichuan Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Pp. 141-142. (Originally published in the journal Shenbao on November 12, 1931.) |
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Wang Maozu. 1920a. "Suo qiu yu pingmin de jiaoyuzhe." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 12, 3. Pp. 1-10. |
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1920b. "Jiaoyu shang shiyongzhuyi zhi weizhi." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 12, 7. Pp. 1-6. |
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Wang Tao. 1994 [1870s]. "Dai shang Guangzhoufu Feng taishou shu." In: Wang Tao, Taoyuan Wenlu Waibian. Compiled by Chu Liu, Shu Jin & Feng Lei, ed. by Zhang Dainian. Shenyang: Liaoning Renmin Chubanshe. Pp. 390-401. |
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1994 [1876]. "Bianfa xia." In: Wang Tao, Taoyuan Wenlu Waibian. Compiled by Chu Liu, Shu Jin & Feng Lei, ed. by Zhang Dainian. Shenyang: Liaoning Renmin Chubanshe. Pp. 19-28. |
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Wei Que. 1928. "Zhiye jiaoyu zai Zhongguo xuezhi shang de diwei." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 98. Pp. 527-534. |
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Yan Yangchu. 1990 [1923]. "Pingmin jiaoyu." In: Yan Yangchu, Yan Yangchu Wenji. Chengdu: Sichuan Jiaoyu Chubanshe. Pp. 1-6. (Originally published in the journal Xin Jiaoyu 7, 2/3, 1923.) |
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Yang Elian. 1928a. "Minguo shiliu nian zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 91. Pp. 1-4. |
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1928b. "Nüzi jiaoyu yu guohuo qiantu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 99. Pp. 611-613. |
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1928c. "Zui jin zhi Zhongguo zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 100. Pp. 729-734. |
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1933. "Zhonghua Zhiye Xuexiao shiwu nian lai zhi chenggong yu shibai." In: Q 235-3-486. Pp. 6-8 [consecutive numbering: 17-18]. |
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Yang Pinyu. 1919. "Xiaowai jiaoshou zhi shishi." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 11, 3. Pp. 17-24. (Under the pseudonym Yang Jiachun.) |
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Yu Ziyi. 1914. "Xianjin xuexiao jiaoyu shang ji ying yanjiu zhi genben wenti." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 6, 12. Pp. 233-236. |
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Yuan Xitao. 1921. "Zhan hou zhi Ou Mei jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 13, 11. Pp. 21-25. |
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Zhang Yilin. 1919. "Jiaoshi zhi ziji guanli." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 11, 7. Pp. 53-57. |
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Zhang Yuanji (Hg.). 1931. Sanshiwu Nian Lai zhi Zhongguo Jiaoyu. Shanghai: Commercial Press. |
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Zhang Zhidong. 1998 [1895]. "Youxue di er." In: Zhang Zhidong, Quanxue pian, Waipian. Ed. by Xie Junmei, with critical comments by Li Zhongxing. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe. |
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Zheng Guanying. 1998a [1895]. "Shangzhan." In: Zheng Guanying, Shengshi Weiyan. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe. Pp. 292-298. |
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1998b [1895]. "Shangwu er." In: Zheng Guanying, Shengshi Weiyan. Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe. Pp. 303. |
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1998c [1895]. "Yiyuan shang." In: Zheng Guanying, Shengshi Weiyan Zhengzhou: Zhongzhou Guji Chubanshe. Pp. 95-99. |
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Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe (Hg.). 1934. Quanguo Zhiye Xuexiao Gaikuang. Shanghai: Commercial Press. |
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1935. Quanguo Zhiye Xuexiao Gaikuang. Shanghai: Commercial Press. |
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1951. Women de Fangxiang. Special issue. (Published without reference to place and name of publisher; located in the university library of Beijing Normal University with the shelf number 378.06/453.) |
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1980-1982. Sheshi Ziliao Xuanji. 3 volumes (1980, 1981, 1982). Beijing: Wenshi Ziliao Chubanshe. |
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"Zhonghua Zhiye Jiaoyushe Xuanyanshu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 9, 7. Pp. 7-17. |
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"Zhonghua Zhiye Xuexiao gaikuang." 1920. In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 20. Pp. 1-6. |
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Zhuang Qi. 1913. "Deguo zhi shiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 5, 10. Pp. 103-112. |
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1916. "Shiye Xuexiao Gaizhilun." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 8, 8. Pp. 117-128. |
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Zhuang Yu. 1912a. "Lun jiaoyu fangzhen." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 4, 1. Pp. 1-11. |
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1912b. "Xin xuezhi shixing zhi shangque." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 4, 9. Pp. 165-173. |
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1913. "Caiyong shiyongzhuyi." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 5, 7. Pp. 87-95. |
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1915. "Qinlaozhuyi yu xunyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 7, 9. Pp. 163-168. |
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1916. "Jinri zhi zhiye jiaoyu." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 8, 9. Pp. 129-137. |
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Zhuang Zexuan. 1922. "Zhiye zhidao shi shenme?" In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 29, Pp. 1-12. |
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Zou Enrun. 1923a. "Yingguo tudi zhidu zhi xiankuang." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 45. Pp. 3-7. |
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1923b. "Zhiye jiaoyu zhi gudi." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 42. Pp. 1-3. |
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Zou Enrun. 1924. "Zhiye de zhen le." In: Jiaoyu yu Zhiye 56. Pp. 339-343. |
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1925. "Canguan Jiangsu zhiye jiaoyu hou de ganchu yu jianyi." In: Jiaoyu Zazhi 17, 7. Pp. 26373-26375. |